Tourism in Theoretical Perspectives
Tourism is a complex and multi-dimensional phenomenon that can be studied from different theoretical perspectives. Here are some theoretical perspectives that are commonly applied to the study of tourism:
Economic perspective: The economic perspective focuses on the role of tourism in generating income and employment, as well as its impact on economic growth and development. This perspective emphasizes the importance of maximizing the economic benefits of tourism while minimizing its negative impacts.
Environmental perspective: The environmental perspective focuses on the impact of tourism on the natural and built environment. This perspective emphasizes the need for sustainable tourism development that minimizes the environmental impacts of tourism.
Sociological perspective: The sociological perspective focuses on the social and cultural impacts of tourism on host communities and tourists. This perspective emphasizes the need for responsible tourism that respects local cultures and traditions.
Anthropological perspective: The anthropological perspective focuses on the cultural and symbolic meanings of tourism for both hosts and tourists. This perspective emphasizes the importance of understanding the cultural and social dynamics of tourism.
Psychological perspective: The psychological perspective focuses on the motivations and behaviors of tourists, as well as the psychological impacts of tourism on individuals and groups. This perspective emphasizes the need to understand the psychological factors that influence tourist behavior.
Political perspective: The political perspective focuses on the role of governments and other political actors in shaping tourism policy and development. This perspective emphasizes the need for effective governance and public policy to promote sustainable tourism development.
Critical perspective: The critical perspective takes a more critical view of tourism, emphasizing the need to challenge dominant power structures and discourses in tourism. This perspective emphasizes the importance of social justice and equity in tourism development.
Butler’s ‘Tourism Area Life Cycle Theory
Butler’s Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) theory is a conceptual model that describes the evolution of tourist destinations over time. According to the theory, tourist destinations go through a series of stages as they develop and mature, and these stages are characterized by changes in tourism demand, infrastructure, and tourism product offerings. Here are the different stages of the TALC theory:
Exploration: In this stage, a destination is discovered by a small number of adventurous tourists who are seeking new and unique experiences. The destination has few facilities and is not well-known to the general public.
Involvement: In this stage, the destination begins to attract more visitors, and infrastructure is developed to support tourism. The destination becomes more popular, and tourism becomes an important part of the local economy.
Development: In this stage, the destination experiences rapid growth in tourism, with new hotels, restaurants, and attractions being built to cater to tourists. The destination becomes more mainstream, and tourism becomes a major driver of the local economy.
Consolidation: In this stage, the destination is well-established, and tourism is a mature industry. The destination may experience some saturation, and growth in tourist numbers may level off.
Stagnation: In this stage, the destination may experience a decline in tourism due to changing market conditions, such as the emergence of new destinations, economic downturns, or geopolitical factors. The infrastructure and tourism product offerings may become outdated, and the destination may struggle to attract new visitors.
Decline or Rejuvenation: In this stage, the destination either enters a decline phase, where tourism becomes a minor industry, or it undergoes a rejuvenation process. Rejuvenation may occur through redevelopment of infrastructure and tourism products, rebranding or repositioning of the destination, or the emergence of new market niches.
Plog’s ‘Destination Rise and Fall in Popular Theory
Plog’s Destination Rise and Fall in Popular Theory, also known as the “psychographic theory,” is a model that explains how different types of tourists prefer different types of destinations. The theory suggests that tourists can be classified into two categories based on their psychographic profiles:
Psychocentrics: Psychocentrics are tourists who prefer familiar and predictable destinations. They tend to be risk-averse and prefer to travel to destinations that are safe and offer high levels of comfort and convenience. Psychocentrics are likely to return to the same destination multiple times and are less likely to seek out new and adventurous experiences.
Allocentrics: Allocentrics are tourists who prefer unfamiliar and exotic destinations. They are risk-takers and seek out new and unique experiences when they travel. Allocentrics are more likely to explore off-the-beaten-path destinations and to engage in adventure activities.
According to Plog’s theory, destinations rise and fall in popularity based on their appeal to psychocentrics and allocentrics. In the early stages of a destination’s development, allocentrics are typically the first tourists to visit, attracted by the destination’s exotic and unspoiled nature. As the destination becomes more established and the infrastructure improves, psychocentrics are attracted by the destination’s increased comfort and convenience. However, as the destination becomes more crowded and commercialized, allocentrics may lose interest and seek out new and less-developed destinations, while psychocentrics may continue to visit the destination.
critisims of Plog’s ‘Destination Rise and Fall in Popular Theory
Plog’s Destination Rise and Fall in Popular Theory has been criticized for several reasons. Some of the main criticisms include:
Oversimplification: Critics argue that Plog’s theory oversimplifies the complex motivations and behavior of tourists. Tourists are not simply divided into two categories based on their psychographic profiles, and many tourists may exhibit both psychocentric and allocentric behavior depending on the context of their travel.
Lack of empirical support: Plog’s theory has been criticized for its lack of empirical support. While Plog’s initial research found support for the theory, subsequent studies have not consistently replicated his findings.
Failure to account for other factors: Critics argue that Plog’s theory fails to account for other factors that may influence destination popularity, such as economic and political conditions, natural disasters, and changes in transportation infrastructure.
Limited applicability: Plog’s theory may be more applicable to certain types of tourism, such as adventure travel, and may not be as relevant to other types of tourism, such as cultural or beach tourism.
Lack of consideration for destination image: Plog’s theory focuses on the preferences of tourists, but does not consider the role of destination image in attracting and retaining tourists. The way a destination is perceived by potential visitors can have a significant impact on its popularity.
What is Doxey’s Irritation Index?
Also known as the Irridex, this is a system established by Doxey in 1975. It is based on understanding how local residents feel about – e.g their changing attitude toward – tourists and the development of tourism in the different stages of a destination’s life cycle. It was proposed by George Doxey, who’s name is not particularly well known outside of tourism academia.
Put simply, it was a four-step timeline as follows:
- Euphoria
- Apathy
- Annoyance
- Antagonistic
This model is supported by Long et al.’s (1990) research results, which indicate residents’ attitudes are initially favorable but become negative after reaching a threshold. The Irridex model indicates that residents’ attitudes toward tourism would change over time within a predictable one-way sequence. It suggests that residents’ attitudes and reactions toward tourism contain a sense of homogeneity (Mason et al. 2000).
In this article I will dive a bit deeper into Doxey’s Irritation Index, and explain how it works in simple, easy-to-understand terms – as well as how it is relevant today.
What does each stage of the Irridex entail?
We can think of Doxey’s Irritation Index as a scale of sorts. It starts off positive and ends up negative, with attitudes sliding from one end to the other as time passes. It is theoretical, but it definitely has a place in the reality of tourism. The four stages are laid out again below with the destination’s response to tourism at each level…
Euphoria
In the first stage, the population of the destination might feel euphoric (a positive emotion) at the prospect of tourism in the area. The index suggests that this level is associated with the initial development of a destination as a tourist location – so there is a sense of excitement and anticipation, especially if there are plans to fund new developments in the area. At this point, residents have little/informal contact with tourists themselves; a lot of it might be hypothetical at this stage too.
Apathy
The second stage of Doxey’s Irritation Index is apathy. This is a fairly neutral feeling, still erring on the side of positivity, and more formal contact with tourists starts to develop. Residents will begin to see these tourists as a source of both income and investment.
Annoyance (also called Irritation)
Part three of the Irridex is annoyance – as we know, this is a fairly negative emotion. Annoyance will likely be mild at first, but will start developing into much stronger feelings as time goes on. Residents will start to see the negative side of the tourism industry in their area: overcrowding, too much traffic, littering, investment spent on tourist activities/amenities rather than things the locals need and so on.
Antagonism
The final stage in Doxey’s Irritation Index is antagonism. This is when things are at their worst – residents are actually expressing their irritation in various ways, with politeness out of the window and giving way to this antagonism. Tourists are seen as the root of any problems occurring in an area.
Arguments against Doxey’s Irritation Index
This is one theory in the world of tourism, tourists, and attitudes to tourism. However, there are arguments against this; in the earlier excerpt from Wang’s paper we see that the Irridex idea relies on a homogeneous community. This means that all of the residents of an area think and feel the same (or a very similar) way. However, there is research from other academics to suggest heterogeneous community responses instead – with diverse attitudes from residents, not all agreeing on everything or feeling the same thing at all times in response to tourism and tourists.
The Irridex suggests that all residents feel the same way, collectively, at all times – travelling in one direction down the scale towards negativity. However, different sectors of a community may respond differently. Entrepreneurs might enjoy tourism as it provides custom for new business ventures – and job seekers will benefit from this too as new employment positions become available. Drivers, however, might detest tourism if it causes a lot more traffic.
Leiper’s ‘Tourism System Theory’
Leiper’s Tourism System Theory is a conceptual framework that describes the tourism industry as a complex system made up of various interconnected components. The theory was developed by Australian tourism researcher, John Leiper, in the late 1970s.
According to the theory, the tourism system can be broken down into three main components: the tourist generating region, the transit region, and the destination region. Each of these components is made up of sub-systems that are interconnected and interdependent. The theory also emphasizes the importance of external factors, such as economic, political, and cultural factors, which can impact the functioning of the tourism system.
The tourist generating region refers to the area where tourists originate from. It includes factors such as the social and economic conditions that motivate people to travel, and the travel behavior of different segments of the population.
The transit region refers to the area that tourists pass through on their way to the destination region. It includes transport systems, such as airlines and roads, as well as accommodation, food, and other services that tourists may use during transit.
The destination region is the area where the tourist spends their time during their trip. It includes various tourism-related components such as attractions, accommodations, transportation, and other services that are specific to the destination.
Leiper’s theory emphasizes the importance of understanding the interrelationships between these different components of the tourism system, as well as the external factors that can impact the system. This can help tourism professionals to better understand the tourism industry and develop more effective strategies for managing and promoting tourism.